This argument is based on the nature of a body, arising from dimensive quantity. But Christ's body seems to be definitively in this sacrament, because it is so present where the species of the bread and wine are, that it is nowhere else upon the altar: likewise it seems to be there circumscriptively, because it is so contained under the species of the consecrated host, that it neither exceeds it nor is exceeded by it. For the common nature is understood as apart from the individuating principles; whereas such is not its mode of existence outside the soul. Objection 1. Reply to Objection 3. It follows, therefore, that it is altogether impossible and unreasonable to maintain that there exists one intellect for all men. Summa theologiae, also spelled Summa theologica, also called the Summa, in Roman Catholicism, a systematic compendium of theology written by Thomas Aquinas between about 1265 and 1273. Reply to Objection 1. On the contrary, According to the Philosopher, Metaph. Is the intellectual principle united to the body as its form? Question. And in this way, since Christ has unfailing and incorruptible being, He ceases to be under this sacrament, not because He ceases to be, nor yet by local movement of His own, as is clear from what has been said, but only by the fact that the sacramental species cease to exist. And among men, those who have the best sense of touch have the best intelligence. On the contrary, Augustine says (De Trin. But when flesh or a child appears, the sacramental species cease to be present. And this indeed is seen to happen when it is beheld by everyone under such an appearance, and it remains so not for an hour, but for a considerable time; and, in this case some think that it is the proper species of Christ's body. Reply to Objection 3. Further, Augustine (De Quant. Further, power and action have the same subject; for the same subject is what can, and does, act. And since knowledge is begotten according to the assimilation of the knower to the thing known, it follows that the same thing may happen to be known by several knowers; as is apparent in regard to the senses; for several see the same color, according to different likenesses. Nevertheless the substance of Christ's body is not the subject of those dimensions, as was the substance of the bread: and therefore the substance of the bread was there locally by reason of its dimensions, because it was compared with that place through the medium of its own dimensions; but the substance of Christ's body is compared with that place through the medium of foreign dimensions, so that, on the contrary, the proper dimensions of Christ's body are compared with that place through the medium of substance; which is contrary to the notion of a located body. Therefore, if besides the intellectual soul there pre-existed in matter another substantial form by which the subject of the soul were made an actual being, it would follow that the soul does not give being simply; and consequently that it is not the substantial form: and so at the advent of the soul there would not be simple generation; nor at its removal simple corruption, all of which is clearly false. 76. x): "It is not necessary for the soul to be in each part of the body; it suffices that it be in some principle of the body causing the other parts to live, for each part has a natural movement of its own.". The embryo has first of all a soul which is merely sensitive, and when this is removed, it is supplanted by a more perfect soul, which is both sensitive and intellectual: as will be shown further on (I:118:2 ad 2). Therefore, from the fact that species of the phantasms exist in And if to this we add that to understand, which is the act of the intellect, is not affected by any organ other than the intellect itself; it will further follow that there is but one agent and one action: that is to say that all men are but one "understander," and have but one act of understanding, in regard, that is, of one intelligible object. There remains, therefore, no other explanation than that given by Aristotlenamely, that this particular man understands, because the intellectual principle is his form. Therefore it is not properly united to a corruptible body. Therefore since the bodies of other animals are naturally provided with a covering, for instance, with hair instead of clothes, and hoofs instead of shoes; and are, moreover, naturally provided with arms, as claws, teeth, and horns; it seems that the intellectual soul should not have been united to a body which is imperfect as being deprived of the above means of protection. The Commentator held that this union is through the intelligible species, as having a double subject, in the possible intellect, and in the phantasms which are in the corporeal organs. Hence if this sacrament had been celebrated then, the body of Christ would have been under the species of the bread, but without the blood; and, under the species of the wine, the blood would have been present without the body, as it was then, in fact. But whatever fills a place is there locally. I answer that, As stated above (Article 1), any part of Christ is in this sacrament in two ways: in one way, by the power of the sacrament; in another, from real concomitance. Reply to Objection 1. Therefore Christ's body is in this sacrament locally. ii, 3) that the relation of universal causes to universals is like the relation of particular causes to individuals. Some, however, tried to maintain that the intellect is united to the body as its motor; and hence that the intellect and body form one thing so that the act of the intellect could be attributed to the whole. And this body of an equable temperament has a dignity of its own by reason of its being remote from contraries, thereby resembling in a way a heavenly body. Edus. Augustine denies a plurality of souls, that would involve a plurality of species. Consequently the body of Christ fills that place. For although it is essentially the same form which gives matter the various degrees of perfection, as we have said (Reply to Objection 1), yet it is considered as different when brought under the observation of reason. Therefore it is impossible for there to be in man another substantial form besides the intellectual soul. vii, 3); and consequently it is impossible for any substantial form to receive "more" or "less." We must therefore say either that Socrates understands by virtue of his whole self, as Plato maintained, holding that man is an intellectual soul; or that intelligence is a part of Socrates. Aristotle does not say that the soul is the act of a body only, but "the act of a physical organic body which has life potentially"; and that this potentiality "does not reject the soul." But the measure of the bread and wine is much smaller than the measure of Christ's body. Objection 1. Therefore it is not united to the body as its form. For as every action is according to the mode of the form by which the agent acts, as heating is according to the mode of the heat; so knowledge is according to the mode of the species by which the knower knows. Objection 3. For since the Godhead never set aside the assumed body, wherever the body of Christ is, there, of necessity, must the Godhead be; and therefore it is necessary for the Godhead to be in this sacrament concomitantly with His body. On the contrary, it is impossible for the same thing to be in motion and at rest, else contradictories would be verified of the same subject. One knowledge exists in the disciple and another in the master. Therefore the forms of the elements must remain in a mixed body; and these are substantial forms. Which opinion is rejected by Aristotle (De Anima ii, 2), with regard to those parts of the soul which use corporeal organs; for this reason, that in those animals which continue to live when they have been divided in each part are observed the operations of the soul, as sense and appetite. But our Lord said (John 6:56): "My flesh is meat indeed, and My blood is drink indeed." Is the entire Christ under each species of the sacrament? Font. viii (Did. But to be united to matter belongs to the form by reason of its nature; because form is the act of matter, not by an accidental quality, but by its own essence; otherwise matter and form would not make a thing substantially one, but only accidentally one. Christ's body is not in this sacrament definitively, because then it would be only on the particular altar where this sacrament is performed: whereas it is in heaven under its own species, and on many other altars under the sacramental species. He intended it to be the sum of all known learning as explained according to the philosophy of Aristotle (384-322 bce) and his Arabian commentators (which was being introduced to western European thought at . But it can be seen by a wayfarer through faith alone, like other supernatural things. Now it is evident that the whole nature of a substance is under every part of the dimensions under which it is contained; just as the entire nature of air is under every part of air, and the entire nature of bread under every part of bread; and this indifferently, whether the dimensions be actually divided (as when the air is divided or the bread cut), or whether they be actually undivided, but potentially divisible. As stated above, during such apparitions Christ's proper semblance is not seen, but a species miraculously formed either in the eyes of the beholders, or in the sacramental dimensions themselves, as was said above. But substance, as such, is not visible to the bodily eye, nor does it come under any one of the senses, nor under the imagination, but solely under the intellect, whose object is "what a thing is" (De Anima iii). Now man is corruptible like other animals. Further, if it be said that the sensitive soul in man is incorruptible; on the contrary, "corruptible and incorruptible differ generically," says the Philosopher, Metaph. And therefore in this sacrament the blood is consecrated apart from the body, but no other part is consecrated separately from the rest. This can be clearly seen from comparison with the sensitive faculty, from which Aristotle proceeds to consider things relating to the intellect. But Christ's eye beholds Himself as He is in this sacrament. Whence it follows that elements in the mixed body would be distinct as to situation. Therefore the entire Christ is not contained under this sacrament. Aquinas concludes that, although theology does not require philosophy to promote knowledge of God, philosophy nevertheless can be of service to the aims of theology. On the Simplicity of God 4. For every form exists in its proper disposed matter. Further, the intellectual soul is a perfectly immaterial form; a proof whereof is its operation in which corporeal matter does not share. Further, since the form is the principle of the species, one form cannot produce a variety of species. Further, in the resurrection the saints will be equal to the angels, according to Luke 20:36. But the part which moves is the soul. However, St. Aquinas provides five ways that prove that God exists and the world belongs to him. But there is this difference, according to the opinion of Aristotle, between the sense and the intelligencethat a thing is perceived by the sense according to the disposition which it has outside the soul that is, in its individuality; whereas the nature of the thing understood is indeed outside the soul, but the mode according to which it exists outside the soul is not the mode according to which it is understood. It seems, then, that straightway on the morrow, or after a short time, He ceases to be under this sacrament. Reply to Objection 5. Therefore this principle by which we primarily understand, whether it be called the intellect or the intellectual soul, is the form of the body. But this is impossible, because the various forms of the elements must necessarily be in various parts of matter; for the distinction of which we must suppose dimensions, without which matter cannot be divisible. for a determinate distance of the individual parts from each other is of the very nature of an organic body, as that of eye from eye, and eye from ear. Therefore it seems to be united to the body by means of an incorruptible body, and such would be some heavenly light, which would harmonize the elements, and unite them together. But the proper totality of substance is contained indifferently in a small or large quantity; as the whole nature of air in a great or small amount of air, and the whole nature of a man in a big or small individual. Therefore the body of Christ is in this sacrament locally. Nor is there any deception there, as occurs in the feats of magicians, because such species is divinely formed in the eye in order to represent some truth, namely, for the purpose of showing that Christ's body is truly under this sacrament; just as Christ without deception appeared to the disciples who were going to Emmaus. Therefore also the soul is thus united to the body. Reply to Objection 4. Objection 2. But what is not in a place, is not moved of itself locally, but only according to the motion of the subject in which it is. and F. Leo Moore, O.P., S.T.L.Imprimatur. Thus are all other consecrations irremovable so long as the consecrated things endure; on which account they are not repeated. Canonicus Surmont, Vicarius Generalis. Therefore if the form, which is the means of knowledge, is materialthat is, not abstracted from material conditionsits likeness to the nature of a species or genus will be according to the distinction and multiplication of that nature by means of individuating principles; so that knowledge of the nature of a thing in general will be impossible. It seems that Christ's body is in this sacrament as in a place. Yet it is the stone which is understood, not the likeness of the stone; except by a reflection of the intellect on itself: otherwise, the objects of sciences would not be things, but only intelligible species. Question. But the conversion which takes place in this sacrament is terminated directly at the substance of Christ's body, and not at its dimensions; which is evident from the fact that the dimensive quantity of the bread remains after the consecration, while only the substance of the bread passes away. From this it is clear how to answer the Second and Third objections: since, in order that man may be able to understand all things by means of his intellect, and that his intellect may understand immaterial things and universals, it is sufficient that the intellectual power be not the act of the body. For this sacrament is ordained for the salvation of the faithful, not by virtue of the species, but by virtue of what is contained under the species, because the species were there even before the consecration, from which comes the power of this sacrament. But this is contrary to the nature of the intellect; for then the intellect would seem not to be distinct from the imagination. Is the intellectual principle multiplied numerically according to the number of bodies or is there one intelligence for all men? But the dimensive quantity of Christ's body is considerably larger than the dimensive quantity of the consecrated host according to every dimension. Objection 4. Therefore, from the fact that the species of phantasms are in the possible intellect, it does not follow that Socrates, in whom are the phantasms, understands, but that he or his phantasms are understood. Nom. Objection 2. Westmonasterii.APPROBATIO ORDINISNihil Obstat. Objection 2. And thus it is clear that as the dimensions remain, which are the foundation of the other accidents, as we shall see later on (III:77:2, the body of Christ truly remains in this sacrament. The same is to be said of the sensitive soul in brute animals, and of the nutritive soul in plants, and universally of all more perfect forms with regard to the imperfect. But the intellectual principle has per se existence and is subsistent, as was said above (I:75:2). 1 First Part. Further, whatever has per se existence is not united to the body as its form; because a form is that by which a thing exists: so that the very existence of a form does not belong to the form by itself. 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