Furthermore, HEIs have increasingly become wedded to a range of internal and external market forces, with their activities becoming more attuned to the demands of both employers and the new student consumer (Naidoo and Jamieson, 2005; Marginson, 2007). 9n=#Ql\(~_e!Ul=>MyHv'Ez'uH7w2'ffP"M*5Lh?}s$k9Zw}*7-ni{?7d Report to HEFCE by the Centre for Higher Education Research and Information. Consensus v. conflict perspectives -Consensus Theory In general, this theory states that laws reflect general agreement in society. Arthur, M. and Sullivan, S.E. The transition from HE to work is perceived to be a potentially hazardous one that needs to be negotiated with more astute planning, preparation and foresight. Consensus theories posit that laws are created using group rational to determine what behaviors are deviant and/or criminal to protect society from harm. This has been driven mainly by a number of key structural changes both to higher education institutions (HEIs) and in the nature of the economy. This is further reflected in pay difference and breadth of career opportunities open to different genders. This contrasts with more flexible liberal economies such as the United Kingdom, United States and Australia, characterised by more intensive competition, deregulation and lower employment tenure. Career choices tend to be made within specific action frames, or what they refer to as horizons for actions. Their findings relate to earlier work on Careership (Hodkinson and Sparkes, 1997), itself influenced by Bourdieu's (1977) theories of capital and habitus. 2.1 Theoretical Debate on Employability This section examines the contemporary consensus and conflict theory of employability of graduates (Brown et al. Less positively, their research exposed gender disparities gap in both pay and the types of occupations graduates work within. Dominant discourses on graduates employability have tended to centre on the economic role of graduates and the capacity of HE to equip them for the labour market. HE systems across the globe are evolving in conjunction with wider structural transformations in advanced, post-industrial capitalism (Brown and Lauder, 2009). The differentiated and heterogeneous labour market that graduates enter means that there is likely to be little uniformity in the way students constructs employability, notionally and personally. (2008) Graduate Employability: The View of Employers, London: Council for Industry and Higher Education. Brown, Hesketh and Williams (2002) concur that the . Roberts, K. (2009) Opportunity structures then and now, Journal of Education and Work 22 (5): 355368. Scott, P. (2005) Universities and the knowledge economy, Minerva 43 (3): 297309. Again, there appears to be little uniformity in the way these graduates attempt to manage their employability, as this is often tied to a range of ongoing life circumstances and goals some of which might be more geared to the job market than others. Little (2001) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional concept, and there is a need to distinguish between the factors relevant to the job and preparation for work. Value consensus assumes that the norms and values of society are generally agreed and that social life is based on co-operation rather than conflict. Little and Arthur's research shows similar patterns among European graduates, there are generally higher levels of graduate satisfaction with HE as a preparation for future employment, as well as much closer matching up between graduates credentials and the requirements of jobs. The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. Marginson, S. (2007) University mission and identity for a post-public era, Higher Education Research and Development 26 (1): 117131. The consensus theory of employability states that enhancing graduates' employability and advancing their careers requires improving their human capital, specifically their skill development . develop the ideas in his General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1936). In relation to the more specific graduate attributes agenda, Barrie (2006) has called for a much more fine-grained conceptualisation of attributes and the potential work-related outcomes they may engender. Department for Education (DFE). Graduates increasing propensity towards lifelong learning appears to reflect a realisation that the active management of their employability is a career-wide project that will prevail over their longer-term course of their employment. A Social Cognitive Theory. Chapter 2 is to refute the Classical theory of employment and unemployment on both empirical and logical grounds. This will help further elucidate the ways in which graduates employability is played out within the specific context of their working lives, including the various modes of professional development and work-related learning that they are engaged in and the formation of their career profiles. They also include the professional skills that enable you to be successful in the workplace. For other students, careers were far more tangential to their personal goals and lifestyles, and were not something they were prepared to make strong levels of personal and emotional investment towards. Well-developed and well-executed employability provisions may not necessarily equate with graduates actual labour market experiences and outcomes. The concerns that have been well documented within the non-graduate youth labour market (Roberts, 2009) are also clearly resonating with the highly qualified. Present study overcomes this issue by introducing a framework that clearly Moreover, this may well influence the ways in which they understand and attempt to manage their future employability. It seeks to explore shortcomings in the current employment of the concept of consensus, and in so doing to explain the continued relevance of conflict theory for sociological research. Overall, it was shown that UK graduates tend to take more flexible and less predictable routes to their destined employment, with far less in the way of horizontal substitution between their degree studies and target employment. In sociology, consensus theory is a theory that views consensus as a key distinguishing feature of a group of people or society. (2007) Round and round the houses: The Leitch review of skills, Local Economy 22 (2): 111117. The study explores differences in the implicit employability theories of those involved in developing employability (educators) and those selecting and recruiting higher education (HE) students and graduates (employers). Such issues may be compounded by a policy climate of heavy central planning and target-setting around the coordination of skills-based education and training. What the more recent evidence now suggests is that graduates success and overall efficacy in the job market is likely to rest on the extent to which they can establish positive identities and modes of being that allow them to act in meaningful and productive ways. Teichler, U. This means that Keynes visualized employment/unemployment from the demand side of the model. The expansion of HE, and the creation of new forms of HEIs and degree provision, has resulted in a more heterogeneous mix of graduates leaving universities (Scott, 2005). As Brown et al. . (1999) Higher education policy and the world of work: Changing conditions and challenges, Higher Education Policy 12 (4): 285312. It was not uncommon for students participating, for example, in voluntary or community work to couch these activities in terms of developing teamworking and potential leadership skills. Graduates appear to be valued on a range of broad skills, dispositions and performance-based activities that can be culturally mediated, both in the recruitment process and through the specific contexts of their early working lives. Naidoo, R. and Jamieson, I. Despite the limitations, the model is adopted to evaluate the role of education stakeholders in the Nigerian HE. 1.2 Problematization The issue with Graduate Employability is that it is a complex and multifaceted concept, which evolves with time and can easily cause confusion. European-wide secondary data also confirms such patterns, as reflected in variable cross-national graduate returns (Eurostat, 2009). The extent to which future work forms a significant part of their future life goals is likely to determine how they approach the labour market, as well as their own future employability. The functionalism perspective is a paradigm influenced by American sociology from roughly the 1930s to the 1960s, although its origins lay in the work of the French sociologist Emile Durkheim, writing at the end of the 19th century. This is further raising concerns around the distribution and equity of graduates economic opportunities, as well as the traditional role of HE credentials in facilitating access to desired forms of employment (Scott, 2005). The theory rests on the assumption that Conservative governments in this time period made an accommodation with the social democratic policy . Keynesian economics was developed by the British economist John Maynard Keynes . Argues that even employable people may fail to find jobs because of positional competition in the knowledge-driven economy. Both policymakers and employers have looked to exert a stronger influence on the HE agenda, particularly around its formal provisions, in order to ensure that graduates leaving HE are fit-for-purpose (Teichler, 1999, 2007; Harvey, 2000). Consensus Theory. Brown, P., Lauder, H. and Ashton, D.N. Research on the more subjective, identity-based aspects of graduate employability also shows that graduates dispositions tend to derive from wider aspects of their educational and cultural biographies, and that these exercise some substantial influence on their propensities towards future employment. Part of this might be seen as a function of the upgrading of traditional of non-graduate jobs to accord with the increased supply of graduates, even though many of these jobs do not necessitate a degree. Summary. They are (i) Business graduates require specific employability skills; (2) Curricular changes enhance . Young, M. (2009) Education, globalisation and the voice of knowledge, Journal of Education and Work 22 (3): 193204. Southampton Education School, University of Southampton, Building 32, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK, You can also search for this author in Nabi, G., Holden, R. and Walmsley, A. Employment in Academia: To What Extent Are Recent Doctoral Graduates of Various Fields of Study Obtaining Permanent Versus Temporary Academic Jobs in Canada? Consensus Theory: the Basics According to consensus theories, for the most part society works because most people are successfully socialised into shared values through the family The end of work and its commentators, The Sociological Review 55 (1): 81103. If initial identities are affirmed during the early stages of graduates working lives, they may well ossify and set the direction for future orientations and outlooks. The relationship between HE and the labour market has traditionally been a closely corresponding one, although in sometimes loose and intangible ways (Brennan et al., 1996; Johnston, 2003). 2.2.2 Consensus Theory of Employability The consensus view of employability is rooted in a particular world-view which resonates with many of the core tenets of neo-liberalism. In flexible labour markets, such as the United Kingdom this remains high. Consensus is the collective agreement of individuals. For much of the past decade, governments have shown a commitment towards increasing the supply of graduates entering the economy, based on the technocratic principle that economic changes necessitates a more highly educated and flexible workforce (DFES, 2003) This rationale is largely predicated on increased economic demand for higher qualified individuals resulting from occupational changes, and whereby the majority of new job growth areas are at graduate level. X@vFuyfDdf(^vIm%h>IX, OIDq8 - starkly illustrate, there is growing evidence that old-style scientific management principles are being adapted to the new digital era in the form of a Digital Taylorism. Consensus theory, on the other hand, looks at how individuals interact and how this can lead to agreement. Furthermore, as Bridgstock (2009) has highlighted, generic skills discourses often fail to engage with more germane understandings of the actual career-salient skills graduates genuinely need to navigate through early career stages. A consensus theory is one which believes that the institutions of society are working together to maintain social cohesion and stability. Compelling evidence on employers approaches to managing graduate talent (Brown and Hesketh, 2004) exposes this situation quite starkly. Consensus theory is a social theory that holds a particular political or economic system as a fair system, and that social change should take place within the social institutions provided by it .Consensus theory contrasts sharply with conflict theory, which holds that social change is only achieved through conflict.. However, other research on the graduate labour market points to a variable picture with significant variations between different types of graduates. Research in the field also points to increasing awareness among graduates around the challenges of future employability. Graduates clearly follow different employment pathways and embark upon a multifarious range of career routes, all leading to different experiences and outcomes. Graduate employment rate is often used to assess the quality of university provision, despite that employability and employment are two different concepts. In the United Kingdom, for example, state commitment to public financing of HE has declined; although paradoxically, state continues to exert pressures on the system to enhance its outputs, quality and overall market responsiveness (DFE, 2010). Employability is a key concept in higher education. This appears to be a response to increased competition and flexibility in the labour market, reflecting an awareness that their longer-term career trajectories are less likely to follow stable or certain pathways. Warhurst, C. (2008) The knowledge economy, skills and government labour market intervention, Policy Studies 29 (1): 7186. Hall, P.A. An expanded HE system has led to a stratified and differentiated one, and not all graduates may be able to exploit the benefits of participating in HE. . French sociologist and criminologist Emile . Similar to Holmes (2001) work, such research illustrates that graduates career progression rests on the extent to which they can achieve affirmed and legitimated identities within their working lives. This research highlighted that some had developed stronger identities and forms of identification with the labour market and specific future pathways. With increased individual expenditure, HE has literally become an investment and, as such, students may look to it for raising their absolute level of employability. Mason, G. (2002) High skills utilisation under mass higher education: Graduate employment in the service industries in Britain, Journal of Education and Work 14 (4): 427456. Beck, U. and Beck-Gernsheim, E. (2002) Individualization, London: Sage. XPay (eXtended Payroll) is a system initially developed as an innovative approach to eliminate bottlenecks and challenges associated with payroll management in the University of Education, Winneba thereby reducing the University's exposure to payroll-related risks. [PDF] Graduate Employability Skills: Differences between the Private and 02 May 2015 Education is vital in the knowledge economy as the commodity of . Furthermore, this relationship was marked by a relatively stable flow of highly qualified young people into well-paid and rewarding employment. In effect, market rules dominate. Based on society's agreement - or consensus - on our shared norms and values, individuals are happy to stick to the rules for the sake of the greater good.Ultimately, this helps us achieve social order and stability. The underlying assumption of this view is that the Savage, M. (2003) A new class paradigm? British Journal of Sociology of Education 24 (4): 535541. A range of other research has also exposed the variability within and between graduates in different national contexts (Edvardsson Stiwne and Alves, 2010; Puhakka et al., 2010). Such notions of economic change tend to be allied to human capital conceptualisations of education and economic growth (Becker, 1993). Department for Education Skills (DFES). Personal characteristics, habits, and attitudes influence how you interact with others. The inter-relationship between HE and the labour market has been considerably reshaped over time. This is also the case for working-class students who were prone to pathologise their inability to secure employment, even though their outcomes are likely reflect structural inequalities. Various analysis of graduate returns (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Green and Zhu, 2010) have highlighted the significant disparities that exist among graduates; in particular, some marked differences between the highest graduate earners and the rest. (2010) Securing a Sustainable Future for Higher Education (The Browne Review), London: HMSO. 6 0 obj express the aim not to focus on the 'superiority of a single theory in understanding employability' (p. 897), . As Little and Archer (2010) argue, the relative looseness in the relationship between HE and the labour market has traditionally not presented problems for either graduates or employers, particularly in more flexible economies such as the United Kingdom. The social cognitive career theory (SCTT), based on Bandura's (2002) General social cognitive theory, suggests that self-perceived employability affects an individual's career interest and behavior, and that self-perceived employability is a determinant of an individual's ability to find a job (lvarez-Gonzlez et al., 2017). Much of the graduate employability focus has been on supply-side responses towards enhancing graduates skills for the labour market. Knight, P. and Yorke, M. (2004) Learning, Curriculum and Employability in Higher Education, London: Routledge Falmer. consensus and industrial peace. Similar to the Bowman et al. Purpose. These concerns may further feed into students approaches to HE more generally, increasingly characterised by more instrumental, consumer-driven and acquisitive learning approaches (Naidoo and Jamieson, 2005). The consensus theory of employment and the conflict theory of employment present contradictory implications about highly skilled workers' opportunity cost for pursuing entrepreneurial activities in the knowledge economy. In light of HE expansion and the declining value of degree-level qualifications, the ever-anxious middle classes have to embark upon new strategies to achieve positional advantages for securing sought-after employment. The problem of managing one's future employability is therefore seen largely as being up to the individual graduate. Power and Whitty's research shows that graduates who experienced more elite earlier forms of education, and then attendance at prestigious universities, tend to occupy high-earning and high-reward occupations. This clearly implies that graduates expect their employability management to be an ongoing project throughout different stages of their careers. This paper analyses the barriers to work faced by long- and short-term unemployed people in remote rural labour markets. Critical approaches to labour market change have also tended to point to the structural inequalities within the labour market, reflected and reinforced through the ways in which different social groups approach both the educational and labour market fields. It draws upon various studies to highlight the different labour market perceptions, experiences and outcomes of graduates in the United Kingdom and other national contexts. consensus theory of employability. Consensus Theory. Much of this is likely to rest on graduates overall staying power, self-efficacy and tolerance to potentially destabilising experiences, be that as entrepreneurs, managers or researchers. The decline of the established graduate career trajectory has somewhat disrupted the traditional link between HE, graduate credentials and occupational rewards (Ainley, 1994; Brown and Hesketh, 2004). A number of tensions and potential contradictions may arise from this, resulting mainly from competing agendas and interpretations over the ultimate purpose of a university education and how its provision should best be arranged. What this research has shown is that graduates anticipate the labour market to engender high risks and uncertainties (Moreau and Leathwood, 2006; Tomlinson, 2007) and are managing their expectations accordingly. Advancement in technological innovation requires the application of technical skills and knowledge; thus, attracting and retaining talented knowledge workers have become crucial for incumbent firms . Again, graduates respond to the challenges of increasing flexibility, individualisation and positional competition in different ways. Bowman et al. In the United Kingdom, as in other countries, clear differences have been reported on the class-cultural and academic profiles of graduates from different HEIs, along with different rates of graduate return (Archer et al., 2003; Furlong and Cartmel, 2005; Power and Whitty, 2006). Increasingly, graduates employability needs to be embodied through their so-called personal capital, entailing the integration of academic abilities with personal, interpersonal and behavioural attributes. According to Keynes, the volume of employment in a country depends on the level of effective demand of the people for goods and services. The increasingly flexible and skills-rich nature of contemporary employment means that the highly educated are empowered in an economy demanding the creativity and abstract knowledge of those who have graduated from HE. The problem of graduate employability and skills may not so much centre on deficits on the part of graduates, but a graduate over-supply that employers find challenging to manage. What this has shown is that graduates see the link between participation in HE and future returns to have been disrupted through mass HE. Moreover, they will be more productive, have higher earning potential and be able to access a range of labour market goods including better working conditions, higher status and more fulfilling work. Thus, a significant feature of research over the past decade has been the ways in which these changes have entered the collective and personal consciousnesses of students and graduates leaving HE. 229240. 213240. Bourdieu, P. (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The correspondence between HE and the labour market rests largely around three main dimensions: (i) in terms of the knowledge and skills that HE transfers to graduates and which then feeds back into the labour market, (ii) the legitimatisation of credentials that serve as signifiers to employers and enable them to screen prospective future employees and (iii) the enrichment of personal and cultural attributes, or what might be seen as personality. (employment, marriage, children) that strengthen social bonds -Population Heterogeneity Stability in criminal offending is due to an anti-social characteristic (e., low self-control) that reverberates . It appears that students and graduates reflect upon their relationship with the labour market and what they might need to achieve their goals. x[[s~_1o:GC$rvFvuVJR+9E 4IV[uJUCF_nRj High Educ Policy 25, 407431 (2012). This tends to be reflected in the perception among graduates that, while graduating from HE facilitates access to desired employment, it also increasingly has a limited role (Tomlinson, 2007; Brooks and Everett, 2009; Little and Archer, 2010). Yet the position of graduates in the economy remains contested and open to a range of competing interpretations. Graduate Employability: A Review of Conceptual and Empirical Themes, Managing the link between higher education and the labour market: perceptions of graduates in Greece and Cyprus, Graduate employability as a professional proto-jurisdiction in higher education, Employability-related activities beyond the curriculum: how participation and impact vary across diverse student cohorts, Employability in context: graduate employabilityattributes expected by employers in regional Vietnam and implications for career guidance. Less positively, their research exposed gender disparities gap in both pay the... 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